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14 Jul 1997

Volume 71, Issue 2, pp. 151-293

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Optical system for rapid materials characterization with the transient grating technique: Application to nondestructive evaluation of thin films used in microelectronics

John A. Rogers, Martin Fuchs, Matthew J. Banet, John B. Hanselman, Randy Logan, and Keith A. Nelson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 225 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119506 (3 pages) | Cited 35 times

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This letter describes a noncontact, automated means for nondestructively measuring the physical (elastic, thermal, electronic, optical) properties of bulk samples, surfaces, supported or unsupported thin films, and multilayer assemblies. The method, which is based on the transient grating technique, uses specially constructed beam-shaping optics to manipulate excitation and probe laser beams for initiating and detecting motions in a sample. We illustrate the approach by determining the thicknesses and mechanical properties of metal films commonly used in microelectronics. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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81.70.Fy Nondestructive testing: optical methods
85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties

Transient electroluminescence: Mobility and response time in quinquethiophene Langmuir–Blodgett films

A. J. Pal, R. Österbacka, K.-M. Källman, and H. Stubb

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 228 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119917 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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Transient characteristics of organic light-emitting diodes with Langmuir–Blodgett films of quinquethiophene as the emitting material have been studied. Field and thickness dependence of the response time have been studied. From the time lag between the voltage pulse and the first appearance of electroluminescence emission, the mobility parallel to the chain of the molecules has been calculated. In thicker films, anisotropy in mobility has been observed when compared with previous results obtained from field-effect studies. The interfaces have been found to play an important role in thinner films. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
78.60.Fi Electroluminescence
78.66.Qn Polymers; organic compounds
68.18.-g Langmuir-Blodgett films on liquids

Observation of multiple Er3+ sites in Er-implanted GaN by site-selective photoluminescence excitation spectroscopy

S. Kim, S. J. Rhee, D. A. Turnbull, E. E. Reuter, X. Li, J. J. Coleman, and S. G. Bishop

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 231 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119507 (3 pages) | Cited 51 times

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Photoluminescence (PL) and photoluminescence excitation (PLE) spectroscopies have been carried out at 6 K on the 1540 nm 4I13/2→4I15/2 emission of Er3+ in Er-implanted films of GaN grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. The PLE spectra exhibit several broad below-gap absorption bands, which excite three distinct site-selective Er3+ PL spectra. The excitation of two of the site-selective Er PL bands involves optical absorption by defects or background impurities, rather than direct intra-f shell absorption, with subsequent nonradiative transfer of the energy to nearby Er3+ luminescence centers. The characteristics of the PLE spectrum of the third site-selective PL band suggest that an exciton bound at an Er-related trap is involved in the excitation mechanism. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
71.35.Cc Intrinsic properties of excitons; optical absorption spectra
71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors

Optical memory effect in GaN epitaxial films

V. A. Joshkin, J. C. Roberts, F. G. McIntosh, S. M. Bedair, E. L. Piner, and M. K. Behbehani

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 234 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.120414 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

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We report on memory effects in the optical properties of GaN and AlN epitaxial-films grown by atmospheric pressure metal organic chemical vapor deposition. After exposing selected areas of particular samples with He–Cd laser light (3.8 eV), we observed a persistent and marked decrease in the near band edge photoluminescence (PL) intensity emitted from these areas. This effect has been observed in epitaxial films that typically have a pyramidlike hillock surface. This ability to modulate PL emission intensity at individual points in these materials can be exploited as a method for optical data storage. A means of erasing information stored using this effect has also been investigated using lower energy (∼2 eV). © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
42.79.Vb Optical storage systems, optical disks

Si/Ge heterostructure on sulphur passivated GaAs(110)

L. J. Huang, K. Rajesh, W. M. Lau, X. Z. Wu, D. Landheer, J.-M. Baribeau, and S. Ingrey

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 237 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119508 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The structure and interface state density of thin Si and Si/Ge heterolayers on sulphur passivated GaAs (110) were studied by capacitance–voltage measurements, x-ray scattering, and x-ray absorption with synchrotron radiation. The results show that the reduction of interfacial state density by utilizing Si or Si/Ge thin heterolayers on sulphur passivated GaAs (110) correlates better with the short-range electronic structure at the interface than the commonly believed long-range atomic abruptness. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
68.35.Ct Interface structure and roughness
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
78.70.Ck X-ray scattering
78.70.Dm X-ray absorption spectra

Gas source molecular beam epitaxy of wurtzite GaN on sapphire substrates using GaN buffer layers

N. Grandjean, M. Leroux, M. Laügt, and J. Massies

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 240 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119526 (3 pages) | Cited 32 times

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Wurtzite GaN was grown by gas source molecular beam epitaxy on (0001) sapphire substrates. Taking advantage of the catalytic decomposition of ammonia on the growing surface, high growth rates (>1 μm/h) were achieved for substrate temperatures ranging between 800 and 850 °C. Surface morphology, structural, and optical properties of thick (2–4 μm) GaN films were investigated versus the growth temperature of the GaN buffer layer. It is shown that this parameter has a drastic influence on the GaN properties. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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81.05.Ea III-V semiconductors
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces
82.30.Lp Decomposition reactions (pyrolysis, dissociation, and fragmentation)
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
71.35.Cc Intrinsic properties of excitons; optical absorption spectra
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Doping dependent ZnCdSe/ZnSe-superlattice disordering

M. Kuttler, M. Strassburg, O. Stier, U. W. Pohl, D. Bimberg, E. Kurtz, J. Nürnberger, G. Landwehr, M. Behringer, and D. Hommel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 243 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119509 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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The doping dependent intermixing of ZnCdSe/ZnSe superlattices was studied by secondary ion mass spectroscopy. The chlorine or nitrogen doped and undoped structures were grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Heat treatment was performed in the temperature range of 300 to 550 °C under different conditions, namely Zn or N atmosphere, vacuum and protected by a Si3N4 cap. The diffusion of Cd was found to be Fickian for all kinds of doping. While identical Cd diffusion coefficients were observed for the undoped and the chlorine-doped superlattice, a distinct enhancement by three orders of magnitude was found for nitrogen-doped structures. The p-type conductivity, and not the nitrogen itself, was identified to be responsible for the Cd diffusion enhancement by additional implantation studies. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
66.30.Ny Chemical interdiffusion; diffusion barriers
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces
82.80.Ms Mass spectrometry (including SIMS, multiphoton ionization and resonance ionization mass spectrometry, MALDI)
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments
61.72.uj III-V and II-VI semiconductors
85.40.Ry Impurity doping, diffusion and ion implantation technology

Photovoltaic quantum well infrared photodetectors: The four-zone scheme

H. Schneider, C. Schönbein, M. Walther, K. Schwarz, J. Fleissner, and P. Koidl

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 246 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119510 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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We have investigated a particular class of photovoltaic quantum well intersubband photodetectors. Each period of the active region in these structures consists of four zones, namely an excitation zone, a drift zone, a capture zone, and a tunneling zone. The devices show pronounced photovoltaic behavior and high detectivities. In particular, the responsivity without external bias is substantially enhanced if resonant carrier capture is achieved due to an appropriate design of the capture zone. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
07.57.Kp Bolometers; infrared, submillimeter wave, microwave, and radiowave receivers and detectors
85.35.Be Quantum well devices (quantum dots, quantum wires, etc.)

Ellipsometric studies of Cd1−xMgxTe (0⩽x⩽0.5) alloys

S. G. Choi, Y. D. Kim, S. D. Yoo, D. E. Aspnes, I. Miotkowski, and A. K. Ramdas

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 249 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119511 (3 pages) | Cited 8 times

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The determination of the above band gap optical properties of zincblende Cd1−xMgxTe (0 ⩽ x ⩽ 0.5) ternary alloys are reported on. Using the parabolic-band critical point model, room-temperature critical point energies of the E0, E0+Δ0, E1, E1+Δ1, E2, and E0′ interband transitions from numerically calculated second energy derivatives of ellipsometric spectra were obtained. The presence of two distinct structures in the E2 feature for x>0 was also observed. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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81.05.Dz II-VI semiconductors
71.20.Nr Semiconductor compounds
78.40.Fy Semiconductors
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors
07.60.Fs Polarimeters and ellipsometers

Observation of multiple defect states at silicon–silicon nitride interfaces fabricated by low-frequency plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition

Jan Schmidt, Frank M. Schuurmans, Wim C. Sinke, Stefan W. Glunz, and Armin G. Aberle

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 252 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119512 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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Silicon nitride films are deposited onto monocrystalline p- and n-type silicon wafers by low-frequency plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition. Using small-pulse deep-level transient spectroscopy, three different types of defects are identified at the silicon–silicon nitride interface. All defects are located in the lower half of the silicon band gap and show a very broad Gaussian-like distribution of the state density. For all three defects, the capture cross sections for electrons, σn, and holes, σp, decrease strongly towards the conduction and valence band edge, respectively, while the capture cross-section ratio σn/σp at midgap, and hence the resulting recombination rate, is very different for each defect type. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
72.20.Jv Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, and trapping
73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors

Extended platelets on {111} in GaAs created by He-ion implantation followed by low temperature annealing

T. Nomachi, S. Muto, M. Hirata, H. Kohno, Jun Yamasaki, and S. Takeda

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 255 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119513 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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We have found that the extremely extended platelets of about 1 μm in diameter are formed in GaAs by He-ion implantation and subsequent annealing at 250 and 300 °C for the short period of 180–300 s. We have shown that the platelets are extended not on the most easily cleavaged {110}-type planes but on {111}-type planes. The platelets give rise to the extra transmission electron diffraction spots. The analysis of the diffraction, combined with electron microscopy data, has shown that unreconstructed interior {111} surfaces, oppositely bent, are created in GaAs. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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61.72.uj III-V and II-VI semiconductors
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
81.05.Ea III-V semiconductors
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
85.40.Ry Impurity doping, diffusion and ion implantation technology
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors
61.72.Cc Kinetics of defect formation and annealing
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization

Phononless radiative recombination of indirect excitons in a Si/Ge type-II quantum dot

S. Fukatsu, H. Sunamura, Y. Shiraki, and S. Komiyama

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 258 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119514 (3 pages) | Cited 62 times

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Phononless radiative recombination is observed in luminescence spectra of Ge quantum wells decorated by self-organized Stranski–Krastanow (S–K) dots grown on Si (100). External uniaxial tensile stress along [011] allows the discrimination of phonon-missing optical transitions. The phononless recombination is attributed to a dipole-allowed k diagonal Δ1-Γ25′ interband transition involving the hole in the Ge wetting layer and the electron in a Si quantum dot encompassed by large S–K dots. The weak oscillator strength of the phononless recombination is evidenced by its slow decay kinetics. The results indicate that low-lying broad band features due to S–K dots are also of phononless origins. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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78.55.Ap Elemental semiconductors
78.66.Db Elemental semiconductors and insulators
71.35.Cc Intrinsic properties of excitons; optical absorption spectra
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
78.20.hb Piezo-optical, elasto-optical, acousto-optical, and photoelastic effects

Planar anisotropic oxidation of graded AlGaAs for high resolution vertical-wall current and light guiding in laser diodes

P. W. Evans and N. Holonyak

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 261 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119918 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Data are presented on the planar (top–down) oxidation of graded AlxGa1−xAs upper confining layers of quantum well heterostructures in order to realize high resolution square-edge lasers (or waveguides). A model is developed to facilitate composition grading of AlxGa1−xAs for vertical-wall (square corner or edge) planar oxidation at convenient oxidation times and tolerances. A simple AlGaAs–GaAs quantum well laser structure is used to demonstrate the square-wall (square-corner) planar oxidation method. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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81.05.Ea III-V semiconductors
81.65.Mq Oxidation
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.65.Wi Nonlinear waveguides
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.82.Et Waveguides, couplers, and arrays

Oxygen aggregation in Czochralski-grown silicon heat treated at 450 °C under compressive stress

V. V. Emtsev, B. A. Andreev, A. Misiuk, W. Jung, and K. Schmalz

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 264 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119527 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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It has been established that the oxygen aggregation processes in Czochralski-grown silicon (Cz–Si) at 450 °C are strongly affected by high hydrostatic pressure. We observed the enhanced production of shallow thermal donors with ionization energies of 30–40 meV and deep donors at ≈ EC−0.1 eV under a pressure of 1 GPa. In contrast, the concentration of the well-known double thermal donors was found to be much less than that in Cz–Si heat treated without stress. The latter effect may be associated with the involvement of self-interstitials in their formation. The enhanced production of other thermal donors is thought to be caused by increasing diffusivity of oxygen under the high stress. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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61.72.S- Impurities in crystals
81.05.Cy Elemental semiconductors
81.10.Fq Growth from melts; zone melting and refining
71.55.Cn Elemental semiconductors
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments

Stress relaxation in tungsten films by ion irradiation

E. Snoeks, K. S. Boutros, and J. Barone

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 267 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119515 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Tungsten films, grown by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition for very large scale integration interconnect applications, suffer from a high internal tensile stress that leads to contact failure. We show with wafer curvature measurements that the stress can be relaxed via viscous flow at room temperature by irradiating the films with energetic ions after deposition. Transmission electron microscopy does not indicate significant structural changes in the W films during irradiation. We varied the irradiation conditions (from 140 keV B ions to 400 keV P ions) and find that the flow rate scales with the nuclear stopping power. Similarities and differences with beam-induced mixing and diffusion are discussed. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
62.40.+i Anelasticity, internal friction, stress relaxation, and mechanical resonances
81.40.Jj Elasticity and anelasticity, stress-strain relations
85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
61.85.+p Channeling phenomena (blocking, energy loss, etc.)

Spatially resolved detection of mutually locked Josephson junctions in arrays

M. Keck, T. Doderer, R. P. Huebener, T. Traeuble, R. Dolata, T. Weimann, and J. Niemeyer

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 270 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119516 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Mutual locking due to the internal coupling in two-dimensional arrays of Josephson junctions was investigated. The appearance of Shapiro steps in the current versus voltage curve of a coupled on-chip detector junction is used to indicate coherent oscillations in the array. A highly coherent state is observed for some range of the array bias current. By scanning the array with a low-power electron beam, mutually locked junctions remain locked while the unlocked junctions generate a beam-induced additional voltage drop at the array. This imaging technique allows the detection of the nonlocked or weakly locked Josephson junctions in a (partially) locked array state. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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74.50.+r Tunneling phenomena; Josephson effects
85.25.Cp Josephson devices
74.25.Uv Vortex phases (includes vortex lattices, vortex liquids, and vortex glasses)

Proton damage effects in YBa2Cu3O7/YBa2Cu2.79Co0.21O7/YBa2Cu3O7 Josephson junctions

E. M. Jackson, B. D. Weaver, and G. P. Summers

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 273 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119517 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The effects of proton-induced defects on the properties of superconductor-normal-superconductor Josephson junctions with YBa2Cu2.79Co0.21O7 barriers have been investigated. The resistance (R) increases linearly and the critical current (Ic) decreases exponentially with fluence, respectively. Changes in Ic and R occur only at fluences which also reduce Tc. The results indicate that point defects probably have little influence on the uniformity of the Ic and R in junction arrays. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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74.72.-h Cuprate superconductors
74.50.+r Tunneling phenomena; Josephson effects
74.45.+c Proximity effects; Andreev reflection; SN and SNS junctions
85.25.Cp Josephson devices
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters
74.25.Sv Critical currents

Identifying layer switching in magnetic multilayers with x-ray resonant magnetic scattering

J. W. Freeland, V. Chakarian, Y. U. Idzerda, S. Doherty, J. G. Zhu, J.-H. Park, and C.-C. Kao

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 276 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119518 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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The order of layer switching in a NiFe/Cu/Co spin valve is determined directly using circular polarized x-ray resonant magnetic scattering. By monitoring changes in the angular dependence of the magnetic contributions to the reflectivity near the Fe L3 and Co L3 edges as a function of applied field, the order of layer switching is directly obtained. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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75.70.Cn Magnetic properties of interfaces (multilayers, superlattices, heterostructures)
75.50.Bb Fe and its alloys
75.50.Cc Other ferromagnetic metals and alloys
78.70.Ck X-ray scattering

Magnetic dissipation force microscopy

P. Grütter, Y. Liu, P. LeBlanc, and U. Dürig

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 279 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119519 (3 pages) | Cited 34 times

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A method of measuring magnetic dissipation on a sub-100 nm scale is presented. This technique relies on measuring changes in the damping of the oscillating tip in a magnetic force microscope (MFM). Damping contrast is strongly correlated with micromagnetic structure and in the case of NiFe, is in quantitative agreement with magnetoelastic losses in the sample. On recording tracks, large damping signals are observed. This has direct consequences on the interpretation of traditional MFM images acquired with detectors that convolute frequency and damping information. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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75.50.Ss Magnetic recording materials
75.50.Bb Fe and its alloys
07.79.Pk Magnetic force microscopes
85.70.Kh Magnetic thin film devices: magnetic heads (magnetoresistive, inductive, etc.); domain-motion devices, etc.
85.70.Li Other magnetic recording and storage devices (including tapes, disks, and drums)
75.80.+q Magnetomechanical effects, magnetostriction

Effect of crystallinity on the magnetoresistance in perovskite manganese oxide thin films

R. Shreekala, M. Rajeswari, K. Ghosh, A. Goyal, J. Y. Gu, C. Kwon, Z. Trajanovic, T. Boettcher, R. L. Greene, R. Ramesh, and T. Venkatesan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 282 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119520 (3 pages) | Cited 92 times

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We report our study of the effect of crystallinity on the magnetoresistance in epitaxial and polycrystalline La2/3Ba1/3MnO3 and La2/3Ca1/3MnO3 thin films. Magnetoresistance in epitaxial films exhibits field dependence and temperature dependence similar to bulk single crystals and sintered bulk ceramics. The polycrystalline films exhibit a markedly different behavior. The magnetoresistance in this case shows either a monotonic increase or saturation with decreasing temperature in contrast to that of epitaxial films in which the magnetoresistance peaks close to the ferromagnetic transition temperature. The field dependence in the polycrystalline films is also remarkably different. At low fields, we observe a sharp drop in resistance followed by a more gradual decrease at higher fields. Our data suggest that in addition to the intrinsic magnetoresistance, grain-boundary transport contributes significantly to the magnetoresistance in polycrystalline films. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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75.47.De Giant magnetoresistance
73.50.Jt Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects (including thermomagnetic effects)

Atomic force microscope tip-induced local oxidation of silicon: kinetics, mechanism, and nanofabrication

Phaedon Avouris, Tobias Hertel, and Richard Martel

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 285 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119521 (3 pages) | Cited 238 times

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Atomic force microscope induced local oxidation of silicon is a process with a strong potential for use in proximal probe nanofabrication. Here we examine its kinetics and mechanism and how such factors as the strength of the electric field, ambient humidity, and thickness of the oxide affect its rate and resolution. Detection of electrochemical currents proves the anodization character of the process. Initial very fast oxidation rates are shown to slow down dramatically as a result of a self-limiting behavior resulting from the build up of stress and a reduction of the electric field strength. The lateral resolution is determined by the defocusing of the electric field in a condensed water film whose extent is a function of ambient humidity. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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81.05.Cy Elemental semiconductors
81.65.Mq Oxidation
81.07.-b Nanoscale materials and structures: fabrication and characterization
81.16.-c Methods of micro- and nanofabrication and processing
85.35.-p Nanoelectronic devices
72.80.Cw Elemental semiconductors
07.79.Lh Atomic force microscopes

Attonewton force detection using ultrathin silicon cantilevers

T. D. Stowe, K. Yasumura, T. W. Kenny, D. Botkin, K. Wago, and D. Rugar

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 288 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119522 (3 pages) | Cited 173 times

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A measured force resolution of 5.6×10−18 N/math at 4.8 K in vacuum using a single-crystal silicon cantilever only 600 Å thick is demonstrated. The spring constant of this cantilever was 6.5×10−6 N/m, or more than 1000 times smaller than that of typical atomic force microscope cantilevers. The cantilever fabrication includes the integration of in-line tips so that the cantilever can be oriented perpendicular to a sample surface. This orientation helps suppress cantilever snap-in so that high force sensitivity can be realized for tip-sample distances less than 100 Å. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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07.79.Lh Atomic force microscopes
68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy

Simulated annealing analysis of Rutherford backscattering data

N. P. Barradas, C. Jeynes, and R. P. Webb

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 291 (1997); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119524 (3 pages) | Cited 174 times

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The combinatorial optimization simulated annealing algorithm is applied to the analysis of Rutherford backscattering data. The analysis is fully automatic, i.e., it does not require time-consuming human intervention. The algorithm is tested on a complex iron-cobalt silicide spectrum, and all the relevant features are successfully determined. The total analysis time using a PC 486 processor running at 100 MHz is comparable to the data collection time, which opens the way for on-line automatic analysis. © 1997 American Institute of Physics.
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82.80.Yc Rutherford backscattering (RBS), and other methods of chemical analysis
82.80.Pv Electron spectroscopy (X-ray photoelectron (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), etc.)
07.05.Kf Data analysis: algorithms and implementation; data management
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