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7 Sep 1998

Volume 73, Issue 10, pp. 1311-1448

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Temperature-induced changes in photopolymer volume holograms

Lisa Dhar, Melinda G. Schnoes, Theresa L. Wysocki, Harvey Bair, Marcia Schilling, and Carol Boyd

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1337 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122375 (3 pages) | Cited 49 times

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Temperature-induced distortions of plane-wave holographic gratings recorded in low glass transition temperature (Tg ∼ 26 °C) photopolymer media were measured. Changes in temperature affect the refractive index and dimensions of photopolymer materials, thereby rotating the angular Bragg selectivity of recorded volume holograms. From temperature-dependent measurements on a set of angularly multiplexed holograms, the out-of-plane coefficient of thermal expansion of a thin photopolymer film constrained between two rigid glass substrates is found to be 500 ppm/°C. These experiments suggest that the temperature sensitivity of photopolymer volume holograms may limit their use in many applications. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
Show PACS
42.40.Eq Holographic optical elements; holographic gratings
42.70.Jk Polymers and organics
78.66.Qn Polymers; organic compounds
68.60.Dv Thermal stability; thermal effects
61.41.+e Polymers, elastomers, and plastics
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
42.79.Wc Optical coatings
64.70.P- Glass transitions of specific systems
64.70.Q- Theory and modeling of the glass transition
65.40.De Thermal expansion; thermomechanical effects

Atomic force microscopy studies of ZnSe self-organized dots fabricated on ZnS/GaP

Z. H. Ma, W. D. Sun, I. K. Sou, and G. K. L. Wong

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1340 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122156 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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ZnSe self-organized dot structures on ZnS thin films were fabricated by the molecular beam epitaxy technique. In situ reflection high-energy electron diffraction studies reveal that growth interruption is required for the formation of the dot structure. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of the dots taken within the same day of growth reveal that the dot density increases with increasing ZnSe coverage. A density of 18 μm−2 was achieved with a coverage of 8.0 ZnSe monolayers. AFM images taken at later times (up to six months later) show ripening effects. The average dot size measured at various times after growth is consistent with the prediction of the Ostwald ripening model with a growth time constant of 4±1 days for the structure with a coverage of 8.0 ZnSe monolayers. The dot size and density in the fully ripened state are essentially independent of the initial ZnSe coverage. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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81.05.Dz II-VI semiconductors
68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
85.35.Be Quantum well devices (quantum dots, quantum wires, etc.)
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
73.61.Ga II-VI semiconductors
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties

On the nature of nanometer-scale islands formed by cadmium selenide deposition on hexagonal cadmium sulfide (0001)A

M. Grün, F. Funfrock, P. Schunk, Th. Schimmel, M. Hetterich, and C. Klingshirn

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1343 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122157 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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Using ex situ atomic force microscopy, nanometer-scale islands were observed on CdS(0001)A surfaces to appear after deposition of small amounts of CdSe. The sizes of these islands are similar to those reported in atomic force microscopy (AFM) studies of uncapped CdSe/ZnSe structures. Investigations by force modulation microscopy and photoluminescence spectroscopy show, however, that they are difficult to assign to a CdSe Stranski–Krastanow growth. Instead, AFM points to an onset of the island formation with the exposure of the samples to atmosphere. By use of electron microprobe analysis, it is suggested that these islands consist of selenium. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
78.55.Et II-VI semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors

Electron affinity at aluminum nitride surfaces

C. I. Wu, A. Kahn, E. S. Hellman, and D. N. E. Buchanan

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1346 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122158 (3 pages) | Cited 38 times

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We investigate the electron affinity of aluminum nitride surfaces prepared by nitrogen sputtering and annealing via x-ray, ultraviolet, and inverse photoemission spectroscopy. The combination of these techniques leads to a precise determination of the relative positions of the Fermi level, valence-band maximum, conduction-band minimum, and vacuum level at the semiconductor surface. We demonstrate that, in spite of the presence of a sharp photoemission onset feature previously associated with negative electron affinity, the electron affinity is clearly positive on these surfaces. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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79.60.Bm Clean metal, semiconductor, and insulator surfaces
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
78.70.-g Interactions of particles and radiation with matter

Solid phase epitaxial regrowth of ion beam-amorphized α-quartz

F. Roccaforte, W. Bolse, and K. P. Lieb

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1349 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122159 (3 pages) | Cited 17 times

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Solid phase epitaxial growth of ion beam-amorphized α-quartz has been studied by means of Rutherford backscattering spectrometry in channeling geometry. α-quartz single crystals were irradiated with Cs+ and Xe+ ions and annealed in air or in vacuum at 500–900 °C. Complete epitaxial regrowth has been observed in the Cs-irradiated samples, after 875 °C annealing in air. On the other hand, vacuum annealing provided only incomplete regrowth of the amorphous layer, while Xe-irradiated α-quartz could not be regrown up to 900 °C. The behavior of Cs in the recrystallization process is discussed in terms of the SiO2-network topology. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Np Solid phase epitaxy; growth from solid phases
82.80.Yc Rutherford backscattering (RBS), and other methods of chemical analysis
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces
61.72.Cc Kinetics of defect formation and annealing
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
61.82.Ms Insulators

High-temperature phase transformation in Ti-diffused waveguide layers of LiNbO3

E. Zolotoyabko, Y. Avrahami, W. Sauer, T. H. Metzger, and J. Peisl

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1352 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122160 (3 pages) | Cited 14 times

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Phase formation processes accompanying high-temperature Ti diffusion in thin waveguide layers of LiNbO3 were studied by grazing-incidence x-ray diffraction and complementary techniques. The development and decay of a rutilelike phase (Li0.25Nb0.75O2)1−x (TiO2)x was directly observed as a function of annealing time. A solid-state reaction is proposed, which clarifies the mechanism of phase transformation, relating it to cation replacements. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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77.80.B- Phase transitions and Curie point
42.65.Wi Nonlinear waveguides
42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
42.82.Et Waveguides, couplers, and arrays
77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates

Interfacial reactions of Pd/Si0.76Ge0.24 by pulsed KrF laser annealing

Da-Ren Chen, Jian-Shing Luo, Wen-Tai Lin, C. Y. Chang, and P. S. Shih

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1355 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122161 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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The interfacial reactions of Pd/Si0.76Ge0.24 were studied by pulsed KrF laser annealing as a function of energy density and pulse number. At an energy density of 0.1–0.4 J/cm2, a continuous germanosilicide layer composed of a low-temperature phase, Pd2(Si1−xGex), and a high-temperature phase, Pd(Si1−xGex), was formed. In contrast to vacuum annealing, Ge segregation out of the germanosilicide layer and the strain relaxation of the residual Si0.76Ge0.24 film could be effectively suppressed by pulsed KrF laser annealing at 0.1 J/cm2. Multiple pulse annealing at 0.1 J/cm2 could further homogenize the Pd concentration of the germanosilicide layer and promote the growth of Pd(Si1−xGex). Concurrently, the smoothness of the germanosilicide layer was substantially improved in comparison with those grown by vacuum annealing at temperatures above 200 °C. The studies also revealed that for multiple pulse annealing at 0.1 J/cm2 with a low repetition rate, 1 Hz, the evolution of phase formation and Pd diffusion could be proceeded by each individual laser pulse. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts
61.72.Cc Kinetics of defect formation and annealing
61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

Optical modulation of bulk one-phonon state in diamond

Y. Mita, H. Kanehara, Y. Adachi, Y. Nisida, M. Okada, and M. Kobayashi

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1358 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122162 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Infrared absorption and electron spin resonance measurements have been performed in nitrogen-containing mixed-type diamonds under several illumination conditions. It has been observed that bulk one-phonon absorption spectra are modulated by illumination of higher than 2.0 eV in photon energy and the change recovers within a few hours after the excitation light is turned off. The results are explained by the change in the charge state of isolated nitrogen, and a characteristic absorption band created by the positive charge state of isolated nitrogen (N+) is proposed. This phenomenon is applicable in decomposing the infrared absorption spectra of diamonds into each component, which contain information about the type and concentration of nitrogen aggregate. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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78.40.Fy Semiconductors
78.30.Am Elemental semiconductors and insulators
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
76.30.Lh Other ions and impurities

Cold-field-emission test of the fatigued state of Pb(ZrxTi1−x)O3films

I. Stolichnov, A. K. Tagantsev, E. L. Colla, and N. Setter

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1361 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122374 (3 pages) | Cited 34 times

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Fatigue phenomena occurring in Pb(ZrxTi1−x)O3 ferroelectric thin-film capacitors (FECAP) with Pt electrodes are studied by means of conduction measurements in the cold-field-emission (tunneling) regime. We have determined that conduction in virgin FECAPs is controlled by tunneling at temperatures 100–140 K and electric fields (2.3–3.0 MV/cm). The Fowler–Nordheim equation successfully describes observed current–voltage relations for reasonable values of the semiconductor parameters of the system. Fatigue of the switching polarization induced by bipolar voltage cycling provokes a substantial increase in tunneling conduction, shifting the I–V curve to lower fields by some 0.5 MV/cm. The partial restoration of the switching polarization produced by heating of the sample up to 490 K results in a complete restoration of the initial current–voltage characteristic. It is shown that the fatigue-induced increase in conduction can be modeled by the charging of an interfacial layer of a thickness comparable with the tunneling length. This interpretation is consistent with a fatigue scenario related to the space-charge-assisted blocking of near-by-electrode centers of domain nucleation. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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85.50.-n Dielectric, ferroelectric, and piezoelectric devices
77.84.Ek Niobates and tantalates
77.84.Cg PZT ceramics and other titanates
79.70.+q Field emission, ionization, evaporation, and desorption
84.32.Tt Capacitors
77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
77.22.Jp Dielectric breakdown and space-charge effects
77.80.Fm Switching phenomena
77.80.Dj Domain structure; hysteresis

Transverse thermoelectric response of a tilted metallic multilayer structure

Th. Zahner, R. Förg, and H. Lengfellner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1364 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122376 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

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Thermoelectric fields transverse to an applied temperature gradient have been observed in artificially created tilted multilayer structures. Copper-constantan multilayer structures were prepared by sintering of a compressed stack of copper/constantan/copper foils and by cutting the stack obliquely to its axis. Tilted multilayer structures represent a new class of thermoelectric devices, and applications for detection of light are demonstrated. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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72.15.Jf Thermoelectric and thermomagnetic effects
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
73.40.Jn Metal-to-metal contacts

Sb mediated C60 thin film growth on mica

Wentao Xu, J. G. Hou, and Z. Q. Wu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1367 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122163 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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We studied the growth of C60 thin films on a layer of surfactant Sb which was predeposited on mica substrates with vacuum vapor deposition method. It was found that the growth behaviors of C60 films are significantly affected by the surfactant Sb and the substrate temperature. (112)- and (111)-oriented C60 single-crystal films with large C60 single crystals were obtained when the substrate temperatures were 200 and 215 °C, respectively. The growth mechanisms of the Sb mediated C60 films were attributed to the reduced surface diffusion rate of adsorbed C60 molecules and the lowered boundary potential energy of C60 islands by surfactant Sb. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
Show PACS
81.05.ub Fullerenes and related materials
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation
61.48.-c Structure of fullerenes and related hollow and planar molecular structures
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