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30 Nov 1998

Volume 73, Issue 22, pp. 3181-3305

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Simultaneous phase separation and basal-plane atomic ordering in InxGa1−xN

Michio Shimotomai and Akihiko Yoshikawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3256 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122736 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Reported discrepancy of phase separation in InxGa1−xN films between experimental studies and theoretical calculations based on the usual regular solution model is discussed from the standpoint of phase diagram. The inclusion of higher-order pairwise interactions in the theoretical model may allow the system to undergo a spinodal decomposition in an asymmetrical manner as revealed by experiments. It is suggested that basal-plane atomic ordering in the In-rich precipitates should accompany the decomposition. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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64.75.-g Phase equilibria
81.30.Mh Solid-phase precipitation
81.30.Dz Phase diagrams of other materials
68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification
61.66.Fn Inorganic compounds

Very large continuous-wave-laser-induced optical absorption in porous silicon films: Evidence for thermal effects

Hideki Koyama and Philippe M. Fauchet

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3259 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122737 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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A very large optical absorption increase induced by continuous-wave laser irradiation is reported for free-standing porous silicon films oxidized at 800–950 °C. A maximum reversible optical-density change of 2.5 is obtained with a pump laser intensity of ∼ 20W/cm2. The induced absorption is found to be strongly decreased when the sample is attached to materials with a higher thermal conductivity. The experimental results can be satisfactory fitted with an empirical formula for the thermally induced absorption increase in bulk crystalline Si. These results strongly suggest that the observed nonlinearity is originating from thermally induced band gap shrinking in Si micro/nanostructures. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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78.66.Db Elemental semiconductors and insulators
42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
78.20.N- Thermo-optic effects
78.20.nb Photothermal effects

Superlattice AlAs/AlInAs-oxide current aperture for long wavelength InP-based vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser structure

N. Ohnoki, F. Koyama, and K. Iga

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3262 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122738 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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A superlattice AlAs/AlInAs structure which can be formed on an InP substrate is proposed and demonstrated for use in oxide confinement long wavelength surface emitting lasers. The large strain of AlAs layers is relaxed by the use of a superlattice structure showing no defects and uniform oxidations. Also, an AlAs layer on an InP substrate provides us with a relatively large heterobarrier, and will be useful for improving temperature characteristics of long-wavelength vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers. A current aperture of a few micrometers in diameter was formed by precisely controlling the oxidation time. We have demonstrated a current confinement by this oxide aperture. Low-threshold long-wavelength vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers with this oxide confinement structure are expected. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings

Quantum real-space transfer in semiconductor heterostructures

Rui Q. Yang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3265 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122739 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Quantum real-space transfer of carriers in semiconductor heterostructures, which relies solely on the wave nature of electrons governed by quantum mechanics, is investigated. In quantum-well structures where electron effective mass varies spatially, the confined electron wave function can be modified by changing the longitudinal momentum via an external electric field parallel to the quantum-well plane. This shifts electrons perpendicularly to another layer having a different effective mass. Issues associated with realistic scattering are identified for unambiguously demonstrating this quantum real-space transfer in practical situations. Specific quantum-well structures for realizing the quantum real-space transfer are proposed with calculations. Potential applications of the quantum real-space transfer are discussed. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
71.18.+y Fermi surface: calculations and measurements; effective mass, g factor
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

A photomodulated reflectance study of InAs/GaAs self-assembled quantum dots

G. L. Rowland, T. J. C. Hosea, S. Malik, D. Childs, and R. Murray

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3268 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122740 (3 pages) | Cited 24 times

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Photomodulated reflectance (PR) spectra have been measured for self-assembled InAs/GaAs quantum dot (QD) structures consisting of a pair of QD layers, with a GaAs spacer either 50 or 100 Å thick. The PR clearly reveals five confined-state QD transitions, at both 80 and 300 K, as well as features from the two-dimensional confining and GaAs layers. The measured QD transition energies correlate well with photoluminescence spectra at 13 K, using high laser excitation powers to incur level filling. Annealing one of the samples produces a strong blueshift in the QD transitions. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors
78.20.-e Optical properties of bulk materials and thin films
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems

Measurement of the AlGaInAs/AlGaAs conduction-band offset using ballistic electron emission spectroscopy

S. Bhargava, C. Zheng, J. Ko, M. A. Chin, L. A. Coldren, and V. Narayanamurti

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3271 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122741 (2 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Ballistic electron emission spectroscopy (BEES) has been used to determine the conduction-band offset between a 10-nm-thick Al0.12In0.22Ga0.66As (Q) strained layer and a ternary Al0.2Ga0.8As (T) barrier located beneath the surface. A three-sample process was used so that the known, reproducible Au/GaAs Schottky barrier would be the top layer of all measured structures. BEES thresholds obtained for Au/GaAs, Au/GaAs/Q, and Au/GaAs/Q/T were 0.96±0.02, 0.98±0.04, and 1.08±0.04 meV yielding offsets of ∼20 meV for GaAs/Q and ∼100 meV for Q/T. Under the affect of a high-temperature anneal, the Q/T offset was reduced to ∼40 meV. In addition, a structure employing solely Au/GaAs/AlGaAs was used to study transitivity for the Q/T material system. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
85.35.Be Quantum well devices (quantum dots, quantum wires, etc.)
61.72.Cc Kinetics of defect formation and annealing

Energy-dispersive x-ray imaging of an InGaN/GaN bilayer on sapphire

K. P. O’Donnell, P. G. Middleton, C. Trager-Cowan, C. Young, S. C. Bayliss, I. Fletcher, W. Van der Stricht, I. Moerman, and P. Demeester

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3273 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122742 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

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In this letter we discuss the potential and the limitations of quantitative characterization of the distribution of In and Ga atoms in III–N mixed alloys using energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) analysis. Spatial fluctuations of the indium content in an InGaN epilayer are found to correspond to changes in luminescence efficiency. Large hexagonal pyramids, which appear sparsely in such layers, appear to be relatively deficient in indium. Monte Carlo simulations, used to profile the Ga Ka x-ray fluorescence, highlight several limitations of the EDX technique in this context, but confirm our interpretation of the data. Finally, we identify differential growth rates as a possible explanation for the concentration/efficiency variations in InGaN layers. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.55.Nq Composition and phase identification
82.80.Ej X-ray, Mössbauer, and other γ-ray spectroscopic analysis methods
02.50.Ng Distribution theory and Monte Carlo studies
02.70.Rr General statistical methods

Electron diffusion length and lifetime in p-type GaN

Z. Z. Bandić, P. M. Bridger, E. C. Piquette, and T. C. McGill

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3276 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122743 (3 pages) | Cited 33 times

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We report on electron beam induced current and current–voltage (I–V) measurements on Schottky diodes on p-type doped GaN layers grown by metal organic chemical vapor deposition. A Schottky barrier height of 0.9 eV was measured for the Ti/Au Schottky contact from the I–V data. A minority carrier diffusion length for electrons of (0.2±0.05) μm was measured for the first time in GaN. This diffusion length corresponds to an electron lifetime of approximately 0.1 ns. We attempted to correlate the measured electron diffusion length and lifetime with several possible recombination mechanisms in GaN and establish connection with electronic and structural properties of GaN. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
81.05.Ea III-V semiconductors
73.50.Gr Charge carriers: generation, recombination, lifetime, trapping, mean free paths
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
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Electrodeposition of nanoscale magnetic structures

D. Hofmann, W. Schindler, and J. Kirschner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3279 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122744 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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Magnetic Co clusters have been electrodeposited from an aqueous electrolyte onto Au surfaces in an electrochemical scanning tunneling microscope (STM). In a two-step electrochemical process, Co is first deposited onto a Au STM tip, then completely dissolved, and locally deposited onto the substrate underneath the STM tip due to local Co2+ oversaturation, which results in a laterally varying increase of the Co/Co2+ Nernst potential at the substrate surface. Mechanical tip–sample contacts or creation of substrate defects can be excluded. The structure size is of the order of the STM tip apex diameter, and is in detail determined by the substrate potential. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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81.07.-b Nanoscale materials and structures: fabrication and characterization
81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys
75.50.Cc Other ferromagnetic metals and alloys
61.46.-w Structure of nanoscale materials
75.50.Kj Amorphous and quasicrystalline magnetic materials
75.50.Tt Fine-particle systems; nanocrystalline materials
81.15.Pq Electrodeposition, electroplating
82.45.-h Electrochemistry and electrophoresis
73.20.Mf Collective excitations (including excitons, polarons, plasmons and other charge-density excitations)

Fabrication and properties of heteroepitaxial magnetite (Fe3O4) tunnel junctions

X. W. Li, A. Gupta, Gang Xiao, W. Qian, and V. P. Dravid

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3282 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122745 (3 pages) | Cited 102 times

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Micron-size magnetic tunnel junctions consisting of ferromagnetic Fe3O4 electrodes, with MgO as a barrier layer, have been fabricated on (100) MgO substrates. Reflection high-energy electron diffraction and transmission electron microscopy studies reveal that the Fe3O4/MgO/Fe3O4 trilayers grown by pulsed laser deposition are heteroepitaxial with abrupt interfaces. To achieve different coercivities for the top and bottom Fe3O4 layers, the trilayers are grown on MgO substrates with a CoCr2O4 buffer layer. The junctions exhibit nonlinear current–voltage characteristics and changes in junction resistance with applied field corresponding to the coercivities of the two magnetic layers. However, the observed magnetoresistance (∼0.5% at 300 K, ∼1.5% at 150 K) is much lower than would be expected for a highly spin-polarized system. Possible reasons for the reduced magnetoresistance are discussed. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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75.70.Cn Magnetic properties of interfaces (multilayers, superlattices, heterostructures)
73.50.Jt Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects (including thermomagnetic effects)
81.15.Fg Pulsed laser ablation deposition
73.40.Rw Metal-insulator-metal structures
75.50.Dd Nonmetallic ferromagnetic materials
75.60.Ej Magnetization curves, hysteresis, Barkhausen and related effects
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties

Influence of GaAs (001) surface termination on the in-plane magnetic anisotropies of MnSb epitaxial films

H. Akinaga, S. Miyanishi, W. Van Roy, J. De Boeck, and G. Borghs

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3285 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122746 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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We have studied the in-plane magnetic anisotropy of epitaxial MnSb (1math01) films grown on GaAs (001) by molecular beam epitaxy. The MnSb films were grown on (2×4) and (4×6) reconstructed GaAs surfaces at 250 and 50 °C. At 250 °C, the films showed a strong twofold in-plane magnetic anisotropy independent of the GaAs surface reconstruction. In contrast, at 50 °C, the in-plane anisotropy appeared only on the (2×4) reconstructed surface. The anisotropic crystallographic domain structure of the MnSb films is thought to cause the magnetic anisotropy. The anisotropic domain formation is explained by the different chemisorption of the Mn adatom on the GaAs surface as a function of the termination. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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75.50.Dd Nonmetallic ferromagnetic materials
75.50.Pp Magnetic semiconductors
75.70.Ak Magnetic properties of monolayers and thin films
75.70.Rf Surface magnetism
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
68.35.Rh Phase transitions and critical phenomena
75.30.Gw Magnetic anisotropy
75.60.Ch Domain walls and domain structure
75.70.Kw Domain structure (including magnetic bubbles and vortices)
68.03.Fg Evaporation and condensation of liquids
68.43.Mn Adsorption kinetics
68.43.-h Chemisorption/physisorption: adsorbates on surfaces

Large tunneling magnetoresistance enhancement by thermal anneal

R. C. Sousa, J. J. Sun, V. Soares, P. P. Freitas, A. Kling, M. F. da Silva, and J. C. Soares

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3288 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122747 (3 pages) | Cited 110 times

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Spin tunnel junctions with tunneling magnetoresistance of 36.5%±0.5%, resistance-area product of 35±6 kΩ×μm2, and junction area between 6 and 75 μm2 were fabricated. The barrier height is 2.5±0.3 eV and the barrier thickness is 7.7±0.3 Å. Large tunneling magnetoresistance (TMR) values are obtained by vacuum anneal (at temperatures from 100 to 240 °C for over 5 h) of junctions prepared with as-deposited TMR of 21%±1.7%, and an as-deposited resistance-area product of 25±6 kΩ×μm2. Two regimes occur during anneal. The first one occurs for anneals up to 200 °C where TMR and junction resistance increase, but the barrier parameters are unaltered. The second occurs above 200 °C, where TMR increases faster, together with an increase in barrier height. At 240 °C, TMR starts to decrease. Rutherford backscattering analysis indicates an asymmetry in the oxygen distribution in the as-deposited barrier. The oxygen distribution becomes homogeneous for anneals above 150 °C. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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73.50.Jt Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects (including thermomagnetic effects)
73.40.Gk Tunneling
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments

Giant magnetoresistance in a low-temperature GaAs/MnAs nanoscale ferromagnet hybrid structure

P. J. Wellmann, J. M. Garcia, J.-L. Feng, and P. M. Petroff

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3291 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122748 (3 pages) | Cited 27 times

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We report the observation of a giant magnetoresistance effect in a low-temperature (LT-)GaAs/MnAs nanoscale ferromagnet hybrid structure. The MnAs nanomagnets are formed by ion implantation of Mn into LT GaAs and subsequent annealing. We have studied the magnetotransport using a vertically biased p+-GaAs/LT-GaAs:MnAs/p+-GaAs structure. A negative magnetoresistance (Δρ/ρ = [ρ(B)−ρ(0)]/ρ(0)) of up to −80% (B = 7 T) is observed at low temperatures (T<20 K), which changes its sign from negative to positive between T = 15 K and T = 20 K. The value of the positive magnetoresistance decreases with increasing temperature from +115% (20 K) to +1.4% (300 K). The magnetoresistance variations with B and T are correlated with the nanomagnet spacing in the structure. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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75.47.De Giant magnetoresistance
75.50.Pp Magnetic semiconductors
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
75.50.Dd Nonmetallic ferromagnetic materials
75.70.Cn Magnetic properties of interfaces (multilayers, superlattices, heterostructures)
72.20.My Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects
61.72.up Other materials
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments
81.40.Rs Electrical and magnetic properties related to treatment conditions
75.50.Kj Amorphous and quasicrystalline magnetic materials
81.07.-b Nanoscale materials and structures: fabrication and characterization
75.50.Tt Fine-particle systems; nanocrystalline materials

Three-dimensional strain states and crystallographic domain structures of epitaxial colossal magnetoresistive La0.8Ca0.2MnO3 thin films

R. A. Rao, D. Lavric, T. K. Nath, C. B. Eom, L. Wu, and F. Tsui

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3294 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122749 (3 pages) | Cited 133 times

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The evolution of three-dimensional strain states and crystallographic domain structures of epitaxial colossal magnetoresistive La0.8Ca0.2MnO3 films have been studied as a function of film thickness and lattice mismatch with two types of (001) substrates, SrTiO3 and LaAlO3. In-plane and out-of-plane lattice parameters and strain states of the films were measured directly using normal and grazing incidence x-ray diffraction techniques. The unit cell volume of the films is not conserved, and it exhibits a substrate-dependent variation with film thickness. Films grown on SrTiO3 substrates with thickness up to ∼250 Å are strained coherently with a pure (001)T orientation normal to the surface. In contrast, films as thin as 100 Å grown on LaAlO3 show partial relaxation with a (110)T texture. While thinner films have smoother surfaces and higher crystalline quality, strain relaxation in thicker films leads to mixed (001)T and (110)T textures, mosaic spread, and surface roughening. The magnetic and electrical transport properties, particularly Curie and peak resistivity temperatures, also show systematic variations with respect to film thickness. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
75.47.De Giant magnetoresistance
73.61.At Metal and metallic alloys
73.50.Jt Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects (including thermomagnetic effects)
72.15.Gd Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects
62.40.+i Anelasticity, internal friction, stress relaxation, and mechanical resonances
61.66.Fn Inorganic compounds
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
75.30.Kz Magnetic phase boundaries (including classical and quantum magnetic transitions, metamagnetism, etc.)
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An oxygen sensor based on copper(I)-conducting CuTi2(PO4)3 glass ceramics

Kousuke Yamamoto, Toshihiro Kasuga, and Masayuki Nogami

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3297 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122750 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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An electrochemical device for sensing oxygen at low temperature, e.g., 100 °C, was developed by using fast Cu+-conducting ceramics. As the solid electrolyte, a dense glass ceramic consisting of crystalline CuTi2(PO4)3 and Cu3(PO4)2 phases, which three-dimensionally interlock with each other, has been successfully prepared by the controlled crystallization of the glass in the Cu–Ti–P–O system. The electromotive force generated between the electrodes showed a good Nernstian response to the partial pressure of oxygen even at a relatively low temperature such as 100 °C. The mechanism for oxygen sensing was discussed with regard to the fast Cu+ ion conductivity and the redox reaction between Cu+ ion in the dense glass ceramic and oxygen gas. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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07.07.Df Sensors (chemical, optical, electrical, movement, gas, etc.); remote sensing
66.30.H- Self-diffusion and ionic conduction in nonmetals

Jumping mode scanning force microscopy

P. J. de Pablo, J. Colchero, J. Gómez-Herrero, and A. M. Baró

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3300 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122751 (3 pages) | Cited 54 times

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In this letter, we present a new scanning probe microscopy mode, jumping mode, which allows the simultaneous measurement of the topography and of some other physical property of the sample. Essentially, at each image point first the topography of the sample is measured during a feedback phase of a cycle, and then the tip–sample interaction is evaluated in real time as the tip is moved away and towards the sample. Since the lateral motion is done out of contact the method is free, or nearly free, of shear forces. The general advantages of jumping mode are discussed. Finally, two different applications of this mode are presented. In addition to the topography, the first application measures the adhesion between the tip and the sample, while the second determines the corresponding electrostatic interaction.© 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
68.37.Rt Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
68.37.Uv Near-field scanning microscopy and spectroscopy
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
07.79.Lh Atomic force microscopes
06.30.Bp Spatial dimensions (e.g., position, lengths, volume, angles, and displacements)
68.35.Gy Mechanical properties; surface strains

Ultrahigh density data storage from local polymerization by a scanning tunneling microscope

L. P. Ma, W. J. Yang, S. S. Xie, and S. J. Pang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3303 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.122752 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

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Ultrahigh density data storage from local polymerization on an organic thin film is demonstrated by using a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) operating in air. An organic monomer material, which may become electrical conductive by polymerization, is selected as data storage material. Films prepared by the monomer material are used for data recording. By applying a high electric field with the STM tip to realize local polymerization, highly stable recorded patterns with molecule-sized recorded marks have been performed. One recorded mark corresponds to a polymeric molecule in the film. The marks are 0.8 nm in size. The nearest distance between two recorded marks is 1.2 nm. Having been read 2000 times the recorded patterns show no discernible change. © 1998 American Institute of Physics.
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82.35.-x Polymers: properties; reactions; polymerization
07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes
87.64.Dz Scanning tunneling and atomic force microscopy
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices
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