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3 May 2004

Volume 84, Issue 18, pp. 3435-3703

Issue Cover Spotlight Figure

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3648 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1737470 (3 pages)

Jingbo Li and Lin-Wang Wang
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One-dimensional ordered structure of α-sexithienyl on Cu(110)

Manabu Kiguchi, Shiro Entani, Koichiro Saiki, and Genki Yoshikawa

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3444 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1736315 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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We have studied atomic structures of α-sexithienyl (6T) films grown on Cu(110) by near-edge x-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS). A one-dimensional (1D) ordered structure of 6T with its molecular long axis parallel to the Cu[001] direction could be fabricated by deposition at 300 K and subsequent annealing at 360 K. Polarization- and azimuth-dependent NEXAFS revealed the formation process of the 1D structure and showed the molecular orientation in the in-plane direction directly. We propose a method to obtain the orientation distribution function of molecules using NEXAFS. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.A- Nucleation and growth
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments
78.70.Dm X-ray absorption spectra
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

Photoreflectance investigations of oscillator strength and broadening of optical transitions for GaAsSb–GaInAs/GaAs bilayer quantum wells

R. Kudrawiec, G. Sęk, K. Ryczko, J. Misiewicz, and J. C. Harmand

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3453 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1737065 (3 pages) | Cited 20 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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GaAsSb–GaInAs/GaAs bilayer quantum wells which consist of two adjacent layers of GaAsSb and GaInAs sandwiched between GaAs barriers have been investigated by photoreflectance (PR) spectroscopy. The oscillator strengths of optical transitions in such multiheterointerface structures have been determined from the experiment and compared with the results of envelope function calculations. Additionally, the broadening of the PR features has been analyzed and a correlation has been found with the character of the transitions: the broadening increases significantly when the type of the transition changes from direct to indirect. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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73.21.Fg Quantum wells
78.67.De Quantum wells

Local built-in potential on grain boundary of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin films

C.-S. Jiang, R. Noufi, J. A. AbuShama, K. Ramanathan, H. R. Moutinho, J. Pankow, and M. M. Al-Jassim

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3477 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1737796 (3 pages) | Cited 48 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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We report on a direct measurement of two-dimensional potential distribution on the surface of photovoltaic Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin films using a nanoscale electrical characterization of scanning Kelvin probe microscopy. The potential measurement reveals a higher surface potential or a smaller work function on grain boundaries of the film than on the grain surfaces. This demonstrates the existence of a local built-in potential on grain boundaries, and the grain boundary is positively charged. The local built-in potential on the grain boundary is expected to increase the minority-carrier collection area from one to three dimensional. In addition, a work function decrease induced by Na on the film surface was observed. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
61.72.Mm Grain and twin boundaries
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
72.80.Jc Other crystalline inorganic semiconductors

Near-bandedge cathodoluminescence of an AlN homoepitaxial film

E. Silveira, J. A. Freitas, M. Kneissl, D. W. Treat, N. M. Johnson, G. A. Slack, and L. J. Schowalter

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3501 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1738929 (3 pages) | Cited 29 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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Cathodoluminescence experiments were performed on a high-quality AlN epitaxial film grown by organometallic vapor phase epitaxy on a large single crystal AlN substrate. The low-temperature near-bandedge spectra clearly show six very narrow lines. The thermal quenching behavior of these emission lines provides insight on how to assign them to free and bound exciton recombination processes. The binding energy for the free-exciton-A in AlN was found to be nearly twice that in GaN. The observation of the free-exciton-A first excited state permitted us to estimate its reduced effective mass and, by using recent reported values for the hole effective mass in Mg-doped AlN, the electron effective mass in AlN has been deduced. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.60.Hk Cathodoluminescence, ionoluminescence
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Wafer-bonded semiconductors using In/Sn and Cu/Ti metallic interlayers

Frank Shi, Hao Chen, and Scott MacLaren

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3504 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1738933 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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This work reports on the interface microstructures and interface electrical and optical properties of wafer-bonded semiconductors using In/Sn and Cu/Ti as the metallic interlayers. The interface microstructures of the wafer-bonded semiconductors were characterized using transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The interface imperfections and their potential influences on the interface electrical performances were discussed. The interface electrical and optical characteristics of the metal-bonded wafers were also compared with those of directly fused wafers. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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73.40.Sx Metal-semiconductor-metal structures
68.35.Ct Interface structure and roughness
78.67.Pt Multilayers; superlattices; photonic structures; metamaterials
68.37.Lp Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Db Elemental semiconductors and insulators
68.37.Hk Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (including EBIC)
73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts

Epitaxial growth of AlxGa1−xN on Si(111) via a ZrB2(0001) buffer layer

John Tolle, John Kouvetakis, Dae-Woo Kim, S. Mahajan, A. Bell, Fernando A. Ponce, I. S. T. Tsong, Michael L. Kottke, and Zhihao D. Chen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3510 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1738944 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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Epitaxial growth of an Al0.2Ga0.8N(0001) film by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) at 1050 °C on a Si(111) substrate via a ZrB2(0001) buffer layer has been accomplished free of unintentional Si doping. The in-plane lattice mismatch between Al0.2Ga0.8N(0001) and ZrB2(0001) is only 0.3% and good epitaxial relation is established with [11math0]AlGaN//[11math0]ZrB2//[math10]Si. The cathodoluminescence (CL) spectrum of the Al0.2Ga0.8N shows a band-edge emission at 3.87 eV with full width at half maximum (FWHM) of 40 meV. Both the intensity and FWHM of the CL emission are comparable to those from a high-quality undoped Al0.2Ga0.8N film grown by MOCVD on sapphire. The close lattice match and the reflective nature of the ZrB2(0001) buffer layer are both attributes accountable for the optical quality of the Al0.2Ga0.8N grown on Si(111). © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase
81.05.Ea III-V semiconductors
68.47.Fg Semiconductor surfaces
78.60.Hk Cathodoluminescence, ionoluminescence
78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors

Depth-resolving structural analysis of GaN layers by skew angle x-ray diffraction

A. Reiher, J. Bläsing, A. Dadgar, and A. Krost

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3537 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1704870 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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The method of skew angle x-ray diffraction is presented as the example of GaN-based light emitting diodes (LED) grown by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy on silicon substrates. This technique in conjunction with a newly developed calculation algorithm allows the depth-resolving structural analysis of multilayer structures. The analysis algorithm, basing on a triangular matrix approximation for the intensity decrease in dependence on the layer depth, the absorption coefficient, and the incident angle, provides information on the real full width at half maximum (FWHM) values of the GaN (10math3) reflection in distinct depths of the device. The sensitivity of this technique was found to be smaller than 50 nm. We show the different characteristics of the measured and calculated FWHMs for two GaN-based LEDs containing a fivefold InGaN/GaN-multi-quantum well. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
68.65.Fg Quantum wells
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Optical characterization of n- and p-doped 4H–SiC by electroreflectance spectroscopy

Gazi Demir, Timothy E. Renfro, R. Glosser, and S. E. Saddow

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3540 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1712037 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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We have studied the electroreflectance (ER) spectra of n- and p-type 4H–SiC polytype samples from 3 to 6.5 eV. The fundamental band gap and higher lying critical points are measured at room temperature. For this polytype, we observe band-gap narrowing in one of the structures with higher doping concentration. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
61.72.S- Impurities in crystals
71.20.Nr Semiconductor compounds
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)

Influence of Pt addition on the texture of NiSi on Si(001)

C. Detavernier and C. Lavoie

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3549 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1719276 (3 pages) | Cited 34 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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We report on the texture of Ni1−xPtxSi films on Si(001) substrates. X-ray diffraction measurements in Bragg–Brentano geometry appear to indicate that pure NiSi films are randomly oriented, while the addition of Pt was reported to induce an epitaxial alignment. However, detailed texture analysis using pole figure measurements shows that pure NiSi films are in fact strongly textured. The NiSi grains exhibit five different types of preferential orientation. The addition of an increasing amount of Pt gradually changes these five texture components. This texture evolution can be understood on the basis of the expansion of the monosilicide unit cell, caused by the incorporation of Pt. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Nondestructive depth profile of the chemical state of ultrathin Al2O3/Si interface

Jong Cheol Lee and S.-J. Oh

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3561 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1734684 (3 pages) | Cited 13 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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We investigated a depth profile of the chemical states of an Al2O3/Si interface using nondestructive photon energy-dependent high-resolution x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HRXPS). The Si 2p binding energy, attributed to the oxide interfacial layer (OIL), was found to shift from 102.1 eV to 102.9 eV as the OIL region closer to Al2O3 layer was sampled, while the Al 2p binding energy remains the same. This fact strongly suggests that the chemical state of the interfacial layer is not Al silicate as previously believed. We instead propose from the HRXPS of Al 2p and Si 2p depth-profile studies that the chemical states of the Al2O3/Si interface mainly consist of SiO2 and Si2O3. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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77.84.Bw Elements, oxides, nitrides, borides, carbides, chalcogenides, etc.
77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
82.80.Pv Electron spectroscopy (X-ray photoelectron (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), etc.)
79.60.Jv Interfaces; heterostructures; nanostructures
71.15.Nc Total energy and cohesive energy calculations
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
68.55.A- Nucleation and growth
81.70.Fy Nondestructive testing: optical methods
73.20.-r Electron states at surfaces and interfaces

Avoiding cracks in self-assembled photonic band-gap crystals

A. A. Chabanov, Y. Jun, and D. J. Norris

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3573 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1737066 (3 pages) | Cited 50 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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Thin colloidal crystals (or synthetic opals) composed of Stöber silica spheres typically develop cracks when they are utilized to obtain photonic band-gap crystals (or inverted opals). We find that, by sintering the silica spheres prior to assembly of the opal, these cracks can be avoided. We report the effects of temperature and duration of the heat treatment on 850 nm silica spheres using electron microscopy, thermogravimetry, and light scattering. We also find a large dependence of the refractive index of the silica on the temperature of the heat treatment. This may allow tuning of the refractive index of silica spheres. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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42.70.Qs Photonic bandgap materials
82.70.Dd Colloids
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
81.20.Ev Powder processing: powder metallurgy, compaction, sintering, mechanical alloying, and granulation
61.72.Ff Direct observation of dislocations and other defects (etch pits, decoration, electron microscopy, x-ray topography, etc.)
78.35.+c Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering; other light scattering

Screened-exchange determination of the optical properties of large gap insulators: CaF2

Miyoung Kim, Yu-Jun Zhao, A. J. Freeman, and W. Mannstadt

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3579 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1737073 (3 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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Optical measurements have provided an extremely difficult challenge to existing electronic band structure calculations. Although CaF2, an important large gap insulator, has been intensively investigated, no parameter-free first-principles calculations have been done due to the well-known failure of the local density approximation (LDA) in treating excited states. Here, we present results of fully first-principles calculations of the electronic structure and optical properties of CaF2 with the self-consistent screened-exchange LDA method implemented in the highly precise full-potential linearized augmented plane wave approach. The calculated optical energy gap, 12.05 eV, is in excellent agreement with experiment (12.0±0.1 eV) and so greatly improves the LDA result (7.23 eV). The optical properties, including the imaginary part of the dielectric function and the reflectance determined ab initio with full matrix elements and no parameters, are found to be in good agreement with experiment. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
71.20.Ps Other inorganic compounds
73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
71.15.Mb Density functional theory, local density approximation, gradient and other corrections
71.15.Qe Excited states: methodology
71.15.Ap Basis sets (LCAO, plane-wave, APW, etc.) and related methodology (scattering methods, ASA, linearized methods, etc.)
77.22.Ch Permittivity (dielectric function)

Ion beam-induced anisotropic plastic deformation of silicon microstructures

T. van Dillen, M. J. A. de Dood, J. J. Penninkhof, A. Polman, S. Roorda, and A. M. Vredenberg

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3591 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1737480 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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Amorphous silicon micropillars show anisotropic plastic shape changes upon irradiation with 30 MeV Cu ions. The transverse plastic strain rate is (2.5±0.2)×10−17 cm2/ion at 77 K, which is about one order of magnitude less than that of silica glass. In contrast, crystalline silicon pillars, irradiated under the same conditions, do not exhibit anisotropic deformation. A viscoelastic and free volume model is used to qualitatively describe the data. By irradiating partially amorphous structures a variety of silicon microshapes can be fabricated. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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81.40.Lm Deformation, plasticity, and creep
62.20.F- Deformation and plasticity
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
61.82.Fk Semiconductors

Magnetic field-controlled two-way shape memory in CoNiGa single crystals

Y. X. Li, H. Y. Liu, F. B. Meng, L. Q. Yan, G. D. Liu, X. F. Dai, M. Zhang, Z. H. Liu, J. L. Chen, and G. H. Wu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3594 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1737481 (3 pages) | Cited 33 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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A two-way magnetic field controlled shape memory effect has been observed in single crystals of CoNiGa with martensitic transformation temperature ranging from 205 to 341 K. Two-way shape memory with −2.3% strain has been obtained in free samples. By applying a bias field of up to 2 T, the shape memory strain can be continuously controlled from negative 2.3% to positive 2.2% giving it a total strain of 4.5%. The magnetic properties of CoNiGa show that it is a good shape memory material working at relatively high temperature of up to 450 K, and has a lower magnetic anisotropy than NiMnGa. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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75.30.Gw Magnetic anisotropy
62.20.F- Deformation and plasticity
75.50.Cc Other ferromagnetic metals and alloys
64.70.K- Solid-solid transitions
81.30.Kf Martensitic transformations
81.40.Lm Deformation, plasticity, and creep
75.30.Cr Saturation moments and magnetic susceptibilities
75.40.Cx Static properties (order parameter, static susceptibility, heat capacities, critical exponents, etc.)
75.80.+q Magnetomechanical effects, magnetostriction

A widely tunable refractive index in a nanolayered photonic material

Marie Sandrock, Michael Wiggins, James S. Shirk, Huiwen Tai, Aditya Ranade, Eric Baer, and Anne Hiltner

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3621 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1738513 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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A class of composite polymer films is described in which the refractive index can be varied by simple mechanical forces. The films are comprised of 1024 alternating layers of an elastomer and a glassy polymer. When the layer spacing is much less than the wavelength of the probe light, these materials behave as effective medium composites. The layer thickness of the elastomer component and thus the effective index of the composite can be varied by compressing the composite. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
61.41.+e Polymers, elastomers, and plastics
61.46.-w Structure of nanoscale materials
42.70.Qs Photonic bandgap materials

Deformation potentials of the E1(TO) and E2 modes of InN

V. Darakchieva, P. P. Paskov, E. Valcheva, T. Paskova, B. Monemar, M. Schubert, H. Lu, and W. J. Schaff

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3636 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1738520 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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The deformation potentials of the E1(TO) and E2 modes of InN are determined by combining infrared spectroscopic ellipsometry, Raman scattering, and x-ray diffraction measurements, and using a reported value of the mode Grüneisen parameter. The deformation potentials are obtained for two sets of stiffness constants. Strain-free values of the InN E1(TO) mode of 477.9 cm−1 and of the E2 mode of 491.1 cm−1 have been determined.© 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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78.30.Fs III-V and II-VI semiconductors
81.40.Lm Deformation, plasticity, and creep
62.20.F- Deformation and plasticity
63.70.+h Statistical mechanics of lattice vibrations and displacive phase transitions
81.40.Jj Elasticity and anelasticity, stress-strain relations
62.20.D- Elasticity

Mg–Ni–H films as selective coatings: Tunable reflectance by layered hydrogenation

J. L. M. van Mechelen, B. Noheda, W. Lohstroh, R. J. Westerwaal, J. H. Rector, B. Dam, and R. Griessen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3651 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1739520 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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Unlike other switchable mirrors, Mg2NiHx films show large changes in reflection that yield very low reflectance (high absorptance) at different hydrogen contents, far before reaching the semiconducting state. The resulting reflectance patterns are of interference origin, due to a self-organized layered hydrogenation mechanism that starts at the substrate interface, and can therefore be tuned by varying the film thickness. This tunability, together with the high absorptance contrast observed between the solar and the thermal energies, strongly suggests the use of these films in smart coatings for solar applications. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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78.66.Bz Metals and metallic alloys
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)

Highly processable bulk metallic glass-forming alloys in the Pt–Co–Ni–Cu–P system

Jan Schroers and William L. Johnson

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3666 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1738945 (3 pages) | Cited 60 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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Highly processable bulk metallic glass alloys in the Pt–Co–Ni–Cu–P system were discovered. The alloys show low liquidus temperature below 900 K, excellent processability with low critical cooling rate reflecting in maximum casting thicknesses in quartz tubes of up to 20 mm, and a large supercooled liquid region. The Pt57.5Cu14.7Ni5.3P22.5 composition has a liquidus temperature of 795 K, a glass transition temperature of 508 K with a supercooled liquid region of 98 K. For medical and jewelry applications a Ni-free alloy, Pt60Cu16Co2P22 was discovered with a liquidus temperature of 881 K, a glass transition temperature of 506 K, and a supercooled liquid region of 63 K. Glass formation was observed in a wider composition range. Vickers hardness of these alloys is in the 400 Hv range. The alloys can be processed in the supercooled liquid region in air without any measurable oxidation. In this region, a large processing window is available in which the material does not embrittle. Embrittlement in these alloys is correlated with crystallization. It can be avoided as long as substantial crystallization does not take place during isothermal processing in the supercooled liquid region. Also, liquid processing can be performed in air when flux with B2O3. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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64.70.P- Glass transitions of specific systems
64.70.Q- Theory and modeling of the glass transition
61.43.Fs Glasses
62.20.Qp Friction, tribology, and hardness
81.05.Kf Glasses (including metallic glasses)
81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys
81.20.-n Methods of materials synthesis and materials processing
81.40.Np Fatigue, corrosion fatigue, embrittlement, cracking, fracture, and failure
62.20.M- Structural failure of materials
81.30.Fb Solidification

Growth kinetics of N-face polarity GaN by plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy

E. Monroy, E. Sarigiannidou, F. Fossard, N. Gogneau, E. Bellet-Amalric, J.-L. Rouvière, S. Monnoye, H. Mank, and B. Daudin

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 3684 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1739511 (3 pages) | Cited 26 times

Online Publication Date: 20 April 2004

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We have studied the surface kinetics of N-face GaN during molecular-beam epitaxial growth by investigating the Ga wetting and the surface morphology. In the case of N-face GaN, it is not possible to establish the self-regulated Ga bilayer that is used as a surfactant for molecular-beam-epitaxy growth of Ga-face GaN. Indeed, to prevent the accumulation of Ga droplets, growth of the N-face GaN must be performed with less than one monolayer of excess Ga on the growing surface. Optimum surface morphology is achieved when growth is performed at the Ga accumulation limit. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
68.47.Pe Langmuir-Blodgett films on solids; polymers on surfaces; biological molecules on surfaces
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