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14 Jun 2004

Volume 84, Issue 24, pp. 4839-5046

Issue Cover Spotlight Figure

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4409 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1757648 (3 pages)

Azita Soleymani, Piroz Zamankhan, and William Polashenski
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Crystalline silicon oxycarbide: Is there a native oxide for silicon carbide?

Cesar R. S. da Silva, João F. Justo, and Inés Pereyra

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4845 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1759373 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 25 May 2004

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Using variable cell ab initio molecular dynamics, we have investigated hypothetical crystalline phases of silicon oxycarbide (Si1−xCxO2). We found that silicon oxide remains energetically stable with carbon incorporation, and the resulting oxycarbide material has a moderately large bulk modulus. Our results also indicated that there are at least two possible, and competing, crystalline phases for the Si2CO6. We discuss the possibility of those phases forming near the SiC/SiO2 interfaces. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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71.15.Pd Molecular dynamics calculations (Car-Parrinello) and other numerical simulations
81.40.Jj Elasticity and anelasticity, stress-strain relations
62.20.D- Elasticity

Thickness-related features observed in GaN epitaxial layers

A. Castaldini, A. Cavallini, and L. Polenta

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4851 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1760591 (3 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 25 May 2004

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Electrical properties of gallium nitride (GaN) epitaxially grown on sapphire show significant dependence on layer thickness. In this letter we show some of the main features observed by spectral photoconductivity (PC), electron beam induced current, and current–voltage characteristics. We focus our attention on the blueshift of the PC peak corresponding to the energy gap, which we associated to the strain acting in the GaN epilayers. The good energetic resolution of photoconductivity spectra allows for a direct study of the energy gap dependence on thickness. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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85.30.Kk Junction diodes
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors

Martensitic transformation from α-Ti to β-Ti on rapid heating

W. Zhang, W. S. Zhao, D. X. Li, and M. L. Sui

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4872 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1762698 (3 pages) | Cited 12 times

Online Publication Date: 25 May 2004

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Instead of conventional quenching martensitic transformation from β-Ti to α-Ti, unusual martensitic transformation from α-Ti to β-Ti induced by rapid heating has been achieved simply by using an electric current pulse. A large amount of the high-temperature martensitic phase remained in a Ti–6Al–4V alloy. We verified that such transformation is structurally and kinetically achievable, which agrees well with the phenomenological crystallographic theory of martensitic transformation. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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81.30.Kf Martensitic transformations
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments

Vacancy defects in O-doped GaN grown by molecular-beam epitaxy: The role of growth polarity and stoichiometry

M. Rummukainen, J. Oila, A. Laakso, K. Saarinen, A. J. Ptak, and T. H. Myers

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4887 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1762984 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

Online Publication Date: 25 May 2004

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Positron annihilation spectroscopy is used to study vacancy defects in GaN grown by molecular-beam epitaxy due to different polar directions and varying stoichiometry conditions during oxygen doping. We show that Ga-polar material is free of compensating Ga vacancies up to [O] = 1018 cm−3 in Ga stable growth, but high concentrations of VGa are formed in N-stable conditions. We also show that vacancy clusters are formed in N-polar material grown in Ga stable conditions, which may be related to the higher reactivity of the N-polar surface. These clusters have no apparent influence on the electrical properties of the material. We thus infer that their charge state is neutral. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters
61.66.Bi Elemental solids
61.66.Dk Alloys
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
78.70.Bj Positron annihilation

Hard metallic glass of tungsten-based alloy

M. Ohtsuki, R. Tamura, S. Takeuchi, S. Yoda, and T. Ohmura

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4911 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1763639 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

Online Publication Date: 25 May 2004

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A tungsten-based ductile metallic glass with the composition W46Ru37B17 was produced by a single-roller melt-spinning procedure. The differential scanning calorimetry measurement showed a two-step crystallization with the first crystallization temperature as high as 1174 K. Young’s modulus of the glass at room temperature was estimated to be 309±20 GPa by a nanoindentation test and the Vickers hardness at room temperature was 16.8±1 GPa. These values are higher than those of any metallic glasses so far reported. High-temperature Vickers hardness test indicated that the hardness value is higher than 10 GPa up to 900 K. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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81.05.Kf Glasses (including metallic glasses)
81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys
62.20.Qp Friction, tribology, and hardness

Native oxide decomposition and local oxidation of 6H-SiC (0001) surface by atomic force microscopy

X. N. Xie, H. J. Chung, C. H. Sow, and A. T. S. Wee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4914 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1728305 (3 pages) | Cited 23 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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We have observed the native oxide decomposition and local oxide growth on 6H-silicon carbide (0001) surface induced by atomic force microscopy (AFM). When the biased AFM probe was scanned over surface areas, native oxide was decomposed and assembled into protruded lines. The decomposition is accompanied by simultaneous graphitization of the scanned areas, leading to metal–semiconductor contact as evidenced in I–V characteristics. When the probe was immobilized and longer bias duration applied, direct oxidation of silicon carbide (SiC) surface was achieved. The dielectrical properties of AFM oxide on SiC were also investigated in terms of interface barrier height. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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81.65.Mq Oxidation
73.40.Ns Metal-nonmetal contacts
64.75.-g Phase equilibria
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

Effects of thermal stress on interdiffusion in InGaAsN/GaAs quantum dots

Q. Gao, H. H. Tan, L. Fu, and C. Jagadish

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4950 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1760886 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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Thermal-stress controlled interdiffusion in InGaAsN/GaAs quantum dots (QDs) has been studied by deposition of titanium oxide (TiO2) layers combined with rapid thermal annealing. Without TiO2 cap layers, blueshifting of the band gap from 1.033 to 1.180 eV at 77 K has been observed after annealing at 850 °C for 30 s due to the thermal interdiffusion. The thermal interdiffusion has been effectively suppressed by depositing TiO2 layers on the samples without degrading the photoluminescence properties. By a combination of annealing temperature and TiO2 thickness, controlled blueshifting of the band gap has been achieved. We suggest that the mechanism of suppression of thermal interdiffusion is the thermal stress imposed on the QD structure generated by TiO2 layers during annealing. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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66.30.Ny Chemical interdiffusion; diffusion barriers
78.67.Hc Quantum dots
61.72.Cc Kinetics of defect formation and annealing
78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors

Structure of the glycerol liquid/vapor interface studied by sum-frequency vibrational spectroscopy

Masahito Oh-e, Hiroshi Yokoyama, and Steven Baldelli

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4965 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1762699 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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Surface-specific sum-frequency vibrational spectroscopy has been used to study the structures of the glycerol liquid/vapor interface. The results show that the molecules at the glycerol surface are highly polar ordered with the CH2 and CH groups projecting into the vapor and the OH group remaining at the surface or pointing into the bulk. More quantitatively, we have also determined how the CH2 groups of the molecules are oriented at the surface. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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64.70.F- Liquid-vapor transitions
78.30.C- Liquids
78.40.Dw Liquids
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

Tomographic measurement of femtosecond-laser induced stress changes in optical fibers

F. Dürr, H. G. Limberger, R. P. Salathé, F. Hindle, M. Douay, E. Fertein, and C. Przygodzki

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4983 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1762990 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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The tomographic measurement of the residual stress profile in femtosecond-laser irradiated standard SMF-28 germanium-doped telecommunication fiber is demonstrated. The fiber is irradiated with weakly focused pulses to realize long-period fiber gratings. In the irradiated grating regions, an asymmetrical increase in axial core stress up to 6.2 kg/mm2 is found. The increase in stress is attributed to a densification of the irradiated glass matrix. The stress-induced anisotropic index distribution is calculated and related to the absolute index change in the irradiated regions. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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42.81.Cn Fiber testing and measurement of fiber parameters
61.80.Ba Ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation effects (including laser radiation)
61.82.-d Radiation effects on specific materials
78.20.Ci Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)
79.20.Ds Laser-beam impact phenomena

Atom motion of Cu and Co in Cu damascene lines with a CoWP cap

C.-K. Hu, L. M. Gignac, R. Rosenberg, B. Herbst, S. Smith, J. Rubino, D. Canaperi, S. T. Chen, S. C. Seo, and D. Restaino

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4986 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1762991 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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Electromigration of Cu and diffusion of Co in Cu damascene bamboo-like grain structure lines capped with CoWP have been studied for sample temperatures between 350 and 425 °C. Void growth from the Cu line/W via interface was observed. Bulk-like activation energy for electromigration of 2.4±0.2 eV was obtained for these samples suggesting that electromigration damage is greatly diminished for these on-chip Cu interconnections. The solubility and diffusivity of Co in Cu was determined from line resistance measurements of thermally annealed Cu lines which were affected by Co diffusion into the Cu line. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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66.30.Qa Electromigration
64.75.-g Phase equilibria
66.30.Ny Chemical interdiffusion; diffusion barriers
85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
61.72.Qq Microscopic defects (voids, inclusions, etc.)

Coarsening of monodisperse wet microfoams

A. M. Gañán-Calvo, J. M. Fernández, A. Marquez Oliver, and M. Marquez

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4989 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1762992 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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We report experiments on the aging of monodisperse wet microfoams. We use the flow focusing technique to produce perfectly monodisperse microbubbles from 50 to 80 μm in diameter. This results in a foam of spherical bubbles of the same size ordered in random ordered lattices like “crystal grains” above the foam/liquid interface. We observe two different behaviors while the foam drains without any interference. At early times, the foam bubble size is almost constant from 10 to 20 min depending on the initial diameter of the bubbles. For longer times, the foam reaches a scaling state where the bubbles mean diameter growth agrees with the theoretical prediction t1/3. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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82.70.Rr Aerosols and foams
81.40.Cd Solid solution hardening, precipitation hardening, and dispersion hardening; aging

X-ray studies of the growth of smooth Ag films on Ge(111)-c(2×8)

L. Basile, Hawoong Hong, P. Czoschke, and T.-C. Chiang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4995 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1763212 (3 pages) | Cited 9 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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We have performed in situ reflectivity measurements using synchrotron radiation of Ag films deposited on Ge(111) over the thickness range of 3–12 atomic layers. The films deposited at a substrate temperature of 110 K are not well ordered, but become well ordered upon annealing, as evidenced by substantial changes in the x-ray reflectivity data. The thickness distribution for each annealed film, deduced from a fit to the reflectivity data, is remarkably narrow, with just two or three adjacent discrete thicknesses present, despite the large lattice mismatch between Ag and Ge. In some cases, the film thickness is nearly atomically uniform. The results are discussed in connection with recent models and theories of electronic effects on the growth of ultrathin metal films. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments
68.49.Uv X-ray standing waves
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

Short-range structure of Zr41Ti14Cu12.5Ni10Be22.5 glass prepared by shock wave

L. Yang, Y. Chao, K. Saksl, H. Franz, L. L. Sun, W. K. Wang, N. P. Jiang, X. J. Wu, and J. Z. Jiang

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4998 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1763214 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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Short-range structure of a Zr41Ti14Cu12.5Ni10Be22.5 bulk metallic glass prepared by shock-wave treatment was investigated by x-ray diffraction using synchrotron radiation with a wavelength of 0.112 71 Å. The radial distribution function was obtained from S(Q) with a large Q value up to 20 Å−1. The oscillation in S(Q) of the glass definitely persists up to Q ∼ 14 Å−1. The shoulder on the high Q side of the second peak is observed in the bulk glass. It is found that the glass has higher coordination numbers in the range of r∼2.4–5.6 Å and lower numbers in the range of r∼5.6–9.5 Å than those for a water-quenched glass while the shell distances are similar in both glasses prepared by shock-wave and water-quenching methods. In the shock-waved glass, atomic configurations in the first, fourth, or fifth coordination shells are modified, i.e., atoms are packed denser in the first two coordination shells and less (or more free volume) in the third and fourth coordination shells as compared to those for the water-quenched glass. This atomic configuration for shock-waved glass might have different physical properties. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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61.43.Fs Glasses
81.05.Kf Glasses (including metallic glasses)
62.50.-p High-pressure effects in solids and liquids
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments

Electroluminescent ceramics excited by low electrical field

Yun Liu and Chao-Nan Xu

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 5016 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1763223 (3 pages) | Cited 19 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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Strong green-light emission occurs in Eu:SrAl2O4 ceramics and Eu:SrAl2O4/poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) (P(VDF-TrFE)) composites when excited by a lower dc or ac voltage. That emission is caused by strong electric-mechanic-optic interaction. The composite shows stronger luminescent emission intensity in comparison to similar ceramics because of an enhanced piezoelectric effect from P(VDF-TrFE)—a typical piezoelectric polymer. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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78.60.Fi Electroluminescence
78.55.Hx Other solid inorganic materials
77.65.Bn Piezoelectric and electrostrictive constants
77.84.Lf Composite materials
77.84.Jd Polymers; organic compounds
78.20.-e Optical properties of bulk materials and thin films

Maskless lateral epitaxial overgrowth of high-aluminum-content AlxGa1−xN

T. M. Katona, P. Cantu, S. Keller, Y. Wu, J. S. Speck, and S. P. DenBaars

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 5025 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1763634 (3 pages) | Cited 18 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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We have demonstrated maskless lateral epitaxial overgrowth of Al0.96Ga0.04N on sapphire for dislocation reduction. 600 nm and 1 μm thick AlN layers were grown on sapphire via metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. Parallel, periodic trenches were then etched in the AlN and Al0.96Ga0.04N was regrown laterally from the unetched mesas. Significant threading dislocation reduction was observed for “wing” material, growing laterally, compared to “seed” material, growing vertically from the unetched mesa, as observed by atomic force microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. Crystallographic wing tilt of ∼0.23° was measured by x-ray diffraction. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.37.Ps Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
81.05.Ea III-V semiconductors

Atomic-scale structural evolution of Ge(100) surfaces etched by H and D

Jun Young Lee, Soon Jung Jung, Jae Yeol Maeng, Young Eun Cho, Sehun Kim, and Sam K. Jo

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 5028 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1763635 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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The atomic-scale structural evolution of Ge(100) surfaces etched by H(g) and D(g) at Ts = 400 K is studied using scanning tunneling microcopy (STM) and field emission-scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). The STM investigation reveals that etching of the Ge(100) by H(g) and D(g) proceeds initially via the production of single atom vacancies (SV), dimer vacancies (DV), and subsequently, line defects along the Ge dimer rows. It is also observed that D(g) etches the Ge(100) surface eight times faster than H(g) does. After extensive exposures of the surface to H(g), the FE-SEM images show square etch pits with V-groove shapes, indicating that H(g) etching of the Ge(100) surface proceeds anisotropically. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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68.47.Fg Semiconductor surfaces
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
81.65.Cf Surface cleaning, etching, patterning
68.37.Vj Field emission and field-ion microscopy
68.37.Ef Scanning tunneling microscopy (including chemistry induced with STM)
68.37.Hk Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (including EBIC)

Interfacial interactions at Au/Si3N4/Si(111) and Ni/Si3N4/Si(111) structures with ultrathin nitride films

L. Aballe, L. Gregoratti, A. Barinov, M. Kiskinova, T. Clausen, S. Gangopadhyay, and J. Falta

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 5031 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1763636 (3 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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Synchrotron photoemission spectromicroscopy has been used to study the interfacial interactions, metal diffusivity, and electronic barriers of Au and Ni contacts on ultrathin silicon nitride films. The Au/Si3N4 interface was found to be nonreactive, and only in the case of a very thin nitride film and elevated temperatures, Si can segregate from the Si(111) substrate and interact with Au. In the case of Ni/Si3N4/Si(111) structures, Ni diffusion and degradation of the Si3N4 lattice are evidenced even at room temperature and strongly enhanced at elevated temperatures, leading to formation of a Ni silicide interlayer. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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79.60.Jv Interfaces; heterostructures; nanostructures
66.30.Ny Chemical interdiffusion; diffusion barriers

Stress field in sputtered thin films: Ion irradiation as a tool to induce relaxation and investigate the origin of growth stress

A. Debelle, G. Abadias, A. Michel, and C. Jaouen

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 5034 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1763637 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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The stress state of sputtered Mo thin films was studied, and a detailed analysis of elastic strains, using x-ray diffraction and the sin2 Ψ method,” was performed. The evolution of the lattice parameter under ion irradiation showed that the usual assumption of a biaxial stress state is not adequate to determine the true stress-free lattice parameter a0 of the film. An original stress model, including a hydrostatic component linked to volume distortions induced by point defects, is required. This model, which describes a triaxial stress field, allows a reliable determination of a0. Furthermore, ion irradiation was shown to be a powerful method for stress relaxation, providing a stress-free lattice parameter solely linked to chemical effects. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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68.55.A- Nucleation and growth
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
62.40.+i Anelasticity, internal friction, stress relaxation, and mechanical resonances
68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters
61.82.Bg Metals and alloys
81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering

Properties of nitrogen-implanted p-type ZnO films grown on Si3N4/Si by radio-frequency magnetron sputtering

Chin-Ching Lin, San-Yuan Chen, Syh-Yuh Cheng, and Hsin-Yi Lee

Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 5040 (2004); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1763640 (3 pages) | Cited 80 times

Online Publication Date: 28 May 2004

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An nitrogen-implanted p-type ZnO film has been grown on a Si substrate buffered with Si3N4 using radio-frequency magnetron sputtering. The Si3N4 buffer layer can effectively improve film stoichiometry and reduce the formation of oxygen vacancies compared to ZnO on Si. The electrical properties of the p-type ZnO films implanted with 5×1012–1×1014 cm−2 N+ dose show a hole concentration of 5.0×1016–7.3×1017 cm−3, hole mobility of 2.51–6.02 cm2/V s, and resistivity of 10.11–15.3 Ω cm. The p-type ZnO films also showed an excellent crystallinity and a strong ultraviolet emission peak near 3.30 eV at room temperature. Moreover, as evidenced by extended x-ray absorption fine structure analysis, the local structure of the p-type ZnO films was changed due to the substitution of nitrogen ions for oxygen ions in p-type ZnO films. Our finding of p-type ZnO films grown on a Si3N4/Si substrate could provide a simple method to fabricate reproducible p-type ZnO films on silicon substrate for the development of large-scale optoelectronic integration device. © 2004 American Institute of Physics.
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81.05.Dz II-VI semiconductors
73.61.Ga II-VI semiconductors
78.55.Et II-VI semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
61.72.uj III-V and II-VI semiconductors
81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
61.66.Bi Elemental solids
61.66.Dk Alloys
61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters
73.50.Dn Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance
78.70.Dm X-ray absorption spectra
73.50.Jt Galvanomagnetic and other magnetotransport effects (including thermomagnetic effects)
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